A contrastive analysis on adverbial clauses in the two languages

te the fact that most of the grammatical references have at least one part dealing with clauses of this type, learners still have difficulties understanding and using them correctly. However, there have been so few studies on such a challenging but interesting topic. In the second place, the common use of adverbial clauses both in spoken and written English and the differences existing between English and Vietnamese in this linguistic area have grabbed my attention. It is hoped that, a detailed research work, especially the one using contrastive analysis device, will satisfy any people of the same interest. 2. Aims and objectives of the study The aims of the study on English and Vietnamese adverbial clauses are to bring a more thorough comprehension of English grammar to intermediate and advanced learners. Additionally, this research is carried out with a view to helping learners of lower levels understand and use adverbial clauses correctly and this is a step to their mastery of English. The objectives of this work are : To give a general understanding of English adverbials. To identify and classify English adverbial clauses. To show the linguistic characteristics of the adverbial clauses in English. To work out characteristics and classification of Vietnamese adverbial clauses. To find out similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese adverbial clauses. 3. Significance of the study This research is carried out with the hope of contributing to the mastery of English of University students and any other intermediate and advanced learners. It is also of some use to secondary students who wish to have a deep comprehension of adverbial clauses. I expect any further studies on this topic or studies on other aspects related to this one. 4. Scope of the study In doing this paper, I give general point about English adverbials much more in depth analysis of adverbial clauses is dealt with in the following part of the paper. In chapter V, a comparison is carried out between adverbial clauses in English and Vietnamese. I try my best to present logically and scientifically all aspects related to clauses of this type in both languages. The data and example in this paper are taken from reliable materials and reference books. 5. Method of the study The first methods used during the process of this work are material collecting and synthesizing with which I can reduced my work from a variety of materials and reference books by well-known English and Vietnamese scholars. This is a study on English and Vietnamese adverbials so that the main research method is based on contrastive analysis. The two steps of contrastive analysis method : description and comparison are especially of full use in chapter V dealing with adverbial clauses in the two languages. 6. An outline of the study My paper includes six chapter: Chapter I: Introduction Chapter II: Literature review Chapter III: English adverbial clauses Chapter IV: Vietnamese adverbial clauses Chapter V: A contrastive analysis on adverbial clauses in the two languages. Chapter VI: Conclusion. CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definition of adverbial : In Oxford’ Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, an adverb is defined as a word that adds more information about place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb. For example: I was soon lost. He works very hard. Syntactically, an adverb may function as modifier of an adjective and adverb, for example: She received so many presents or as adverbial, which is a constituent distinct from S,V,O and C (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987,p.126). For example: When I was in England, I drank tea with breakfast. A S V O Co Adverbials are main type of the adverb group. As one of the basic and complicate categories. According to Leech & Svartvik (1992,p.197), adverbials usually tell something extra about the action, happening or state described by the rest of the sentence Cobuid (1992) define that the adverbial is a word or a group of words that help answer the questions Where it ( the circumstance of an event or situation) occurs, how much it occurs or when it occurs. Definition of adverbial clause : An adverbial clause is a clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains subject (explicit or implied) and predicate, and it modifies a verb. For example: I saw Joe when I went to the store. Functionally, like an adverb, an adverbial clause modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or an entire clause or sentence. (Farmer et al.(1985) and Nadler & Marelli). To make it clearer, Nadler & Marelli (1971,p.115) work out the general pattern for adverbial clauses. That is Subordinator + sentence = adverbial clause. For example: Whenever you go, whatever you do, remember that your home is the best. As a main type of adverbial group, adverbial clauses bear characteristics of adverbials, i.e. they are optional and may appear in the following positions. After an independent clause Before an independent clause Between the parts of an independent clause It should be noticed that adverbial clauses appearing in the latter two possitions are set of by commas. Following are examples of adverbial clauses in different positions: His cartoon made him more successful than he had dreamed Although he had begun as an animator, Disney actual drew few of the cartoons used in his films. Never less, adverbial clauses often occur in final position, after the main clause. 2.3. Characteristics of adverbials: 2.3.1 Syntactic functions of adverbials: In terms of syntactic functions, adverbials are viewed under three categories: a. Adjuncts: Are elements integrated within the structure of the clauses and affected by such clausal process as negation and interrogation. For example : He didn’t immediately recognize me. He didn’t recognize me immediately. In the negative declarative clauses, the adverbial can only come medially and finally as in “ Immediately, he didn’t recognize me.”In addition, the adverbial can be the focus of the question or the clause negation. He didn’t recognize me immediately. Did he recognize you immediately? b. Disjunctions and conjuncts : are elements which are importance in the structure of the clause and unlike adjuncts, they are not affected by such clausal processes as negation and interrogation. They can appear initially in a negative declarative clauses as in : Personally, I don’t like him. And they cannot be the focus of a question or of clause negation as in : Seriously, do you love him? I cannot stand him, after all. The distinction between them is that conjuncts have primarily a connective function. For example : To my surprise, she gave me a lot of money. Disjunction In conclusion, it is high time we joined and saved the Earth. Conjunct 2.3.2.Semantic roles of adverbials Adverbials may be placed in various semantic categories such as time, place, purpose, manner, cause, result, condition, concession and comparison. Adverbials of time: Eg: She left her family years ago. Adverbials of place: Eg : They played football on the pavement. Adverbials of purpose: Eg: I come here to help you. Adverbials of manner: Eg : Drive carefully! Adverbials of cause( reason); Eg: Thank to your help, I could solve this problem. Adverbials of result ( consequence) : Eg: You are too young to go out late at night. Adverbials of condition : Eg : In case of rain, take this umbrella. Adverbials of concession Eg: Despite the lack of intelligence, the poor boy managed to find way home. Adverbials of degree : Eg : We are badly in need of electricity. Adverbials of modality : Eg : Probably, she will come. Summary : Adverbial is a word, a phrase or a clause that tells something about the states or actions in the main clause. In term of syntactic functions, adverbial are of three types: Adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts. Semantically, adverbials fall into ten types : adverbials of time, place, purpose, manner, reason (cause), result (consequence), condition, condition, concession, degree and modality. CHAPTER iii: Adverbial clauses in English. 3.1 Structural types of adverbial clauses: Taking the variations of the clausal structures into account, I distinguish three main types of adverbial clauses. They are finite adverbial clauses, non-finite adverbial clauses and verbless adverbial clauses. 3.1.1.Finite adverbial clauses This type of adverbial clauses contains a finite verb which, according to Graver (1997,p.264), has number, person and tense. For example: She cannot speak English as well as she writes it. As he was posting the letter, he suddenly realized that he hadn’t put a stamp on the envelope. The clauses in italics contain a subject and a predicate that agrees with the subject in terms of number, person and tense. The finite adverbial clauses is always introduced by subordinators which serve to indicate the dependent status of the clauses together with its circumstantial meaning. Subordinators is taken from Quirk et al. (1979) ( 1) Simple subordinators: After, as, because, whereupon, before, but, how(ever), although, when, while, whilst, where by, like, since, that, where as, unless, until, once, etc. (2) Compound subordinators: Ending with that : in that, so that, in order that, such that, except that, for all that, save that, etc. Ending with optional that: now(that), providing(that), seeing(that), provided(that), supposing(that),considering(that),given(that),granted(that),granting(that), admitting (that), assuming (that), immediately (that), directly (that), etc. Ending with as : as far as, as long as, as soon as, according as, etc. Ending with than: sooner than (+ infinitive clauses) , rather than (+ non-finite or verbless clauses) Other : as if, as though, in case (3). Correlative subordinators: More/ less...than, as...as, so...as, so...that, such...as, such... that, no sooner...than, whether...or, etc. Adverbs like “still, anyhow” and the coordinate conjunction “yet” may occur with subordinate conjunction of concession: although, even though, though forming correlative conjunctions. For example: As he didn’t understand, he asked the teacher to explain the question. So as not to wake the children up, we went out on tiptoe. No sooner had she put up her umbrella than the rain came down in torrents. Though the doctor had given him strict instructions to stay in bed, yet he went on to work. 3.1.2 Non-finite adverbial clauses The non-finite adverbial clause, in contrast with the finite one, has no distinction of person, number. In the other words, it always has the ability to go without a subject, although in many kinds of non-finite clauses, subject is optional. This general statement helps us classify non-finite adverbial clauses in two groups : non-finite adverbial clauses without subject and the one with subject. 3.1.2.1 Non-finite adverbial clauses without subject Infinitive clauses with to In order to get money, he committed the robbery. -ing participle clauses Being the eldest child in the family, she had to drop out of school and earn a living. -ed participle clauses When seen in this light, the matter is not as serious as people generally suppose. 3.1.2.2 Non-finite adverbial clauses with a subject / absolute clauses Sometimes the participle clause contains own subject, in which case the construction is called Absolute clause by Quirk et.al (1979) and Grave(1997).For example: The holiday being over, we must now get down to some hard work. Rather than he do it, I’d prefer to give the job to her. When the subject of the participle clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by “with” or “without”. For example : I wouldn’t dare go home without the job finished With the case investigated carefully, the police finally caught the murderer. 3.1.3 Verbless adverbial clauses : In Quirk et.al(1979), verbless clauses, a part from being verbless, are also commonly subject less. Looking at the following example : Whether right or wrong, he always comes of the worst in argument. One should avoid taking a trip abroad in August where possible. We can see that, the missing elements are the subject and a form of the verb BE. The ellipted subject in verbless clauses, like the one in non-finite clauses, is the subject of the superordinate. Thus, these example can be restated : Whether he is right or wrong, he always comes of the worst in argument. One should avoid taking a trip abroad in August where it is possible. The adverbial clauses can follow “ with” or “without”. For example : With the whole meeting in uproar, the chairman abandoned the attempt to take a vote. Without a tear on her face, the girl watched him led away. 3.2 Semantic roles of adverbial clauses One important way in which adverbial clauses can be sub-classified is according to the semantic values they can perform such as : Time, place, concession, contrast, reason and cause, circumstance, purpose, result, manner and comparison, proportion and preference. Thus, adverbial clauses can be sub-classified into : Clauses of time Clauses of place Clauses of condition and concession Clauses of reason (cause) Clauses of circumstance Clauses of purpose Clauses of result Clauses of manner and comparison Clauses of proportion and preference Clause of contrast 3.2.1 Clauses of time In Cobuild (1972)’s view, time clauses tell when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event : Her father died when she was young. (a) Finite adverbial clauses of time: Finite adverbial clauses of time are introduced by one of the following subordinators : Simple subordinators Compound subordinators Correlative subordinators After, before, as, once( ever), since, till, until, when( ever), while, now(that), immediately(that), directly( that) As soon as, as long as, so long as No sooner....than Hardly....when Scarcely....when If we want to emphasize that something happened at a particular time, we can use “it was”. For example : It was 7 o’clock when he returned. We can also use Immediately, every time, each time, the first time, the next time, the last time, the moment the minute or a noun group such as 3 days, 4 days, etc. In front of after or before. For example : Every time he saw her, he could not say anything. The last time we met, he said he was very happy. Exactly two weeks after they had moved to a new house, they held a big party. By which time, at which point, after which, where upon, and upon which are also used at the beginning of time clauses. For example : He came back an hour later, By which time his friends had already left. (b) Non-finite adverbial clauses of time Instead of using a finite clause, we can use non-finite adverbial clauses including : ing clauses and ed clauses. Despite the common position at the beginning of the sentence, clauses of time can appear medially or finally. Ing clauses may follow : after, before, since, when(ever),while, untill, till and once. They can appear without subordinators. For example: (When) visiting a strange city, I like to have a guidebook with me. I did not realize I had left my ticket at home until arriving at the airport. Ed clauses may follow once, till, until, while, when (ever), as soon as. Ed clauses may appear without a subordinator. For example : (Once) given more time, we could finish our work. We decided to stay at home as soon as told that the weather was bad. (c) Verless adverbial clauses of time Verless adverbial clauses may consist of When ( ever), while, once, until, till, followed by prepositional phase. For example : When (ever) in difficulty, she prays God for help. When under pressure , she works more effectively. We can use a phase consisting of when (ever), as soon as and adjective such as necessary or possible. For example: It paid to speak the truth whenever possible. Complete the work as soon as possible. 3.2.2 Clauses of place: Cobuild (1992) claims that sometimes when we talk about location or position of something, we need to use a clause rather than a simple adjunct. That kind of clause is called adverbial clauses of place. 3.2.2.1 Finite adverbial clauses of place Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by where, wherever, anywhere or everywhere. Where is specific while wherever, anywhere and everywhere are nonspecific. The clause may indicate position: Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened suits The clause may indicate direction: They went wherever they could find work. Adverbial clauses of place can be introduced by correlative where(ver)...there. For example : Where there is trouble, (there) he is sure to be. Wherever the film star appeared, her fans were shocked by her appearance( there). 3.2.2.2 Nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses of place Like adverbial clauses of time, adverbial clauses of place may be nonfinite or verbless. For example: Where(ever) possible, you should think twice before saying. 3.2.3 Clauses of condition and concession 3.2.3.1 Conditional clauses “Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance (or set of circumstances) on another”(Quirk,1979,p.745). They usually begin with if (positive condition) and Unless (negative condition). We use “if” to say that consequence of something happening .When an if clauses is put first, “Then” is sometimes put at the beginning of the main clause. For example : If it is fine, (then) we’ll go for a picnic. “Unless” mean “if ....not” and is the opposite of the compound conditional conjuncts : provided (that), providing (that), as long as, so long as, on condition that. For example : I will not lend you my money unless you promise to pay it back on time. Clauses beginning with unless usually go after main clauses. Other conjuncts are : assuming (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), given (that), in case. For example : In case you need me, I’ll be in my office until lunch time. Given (that) he were intelligent, he would not have got such high results. If possible, I’ll see the manager right now. The first one is used to talk about situation, which may exist in the future. In sentences of this kind, the verb in the main clause is will or shall and the verb in the conditional clause is in simple present tense. For example: If you like, I'll come to help you. The second one, in which the verb in the main clause is would or should, the verb in the conditional clause is in the simple past sentence, expresses a situation, which you know does not exist at present. For example: If I were you, I would apologize her. The third one mentions a situation, which you know, did not exist in the past. In this case, the verb in the main clause is in the past perfect tense. For example: If it hadn't been for your wholehearted help, we would not have been able to solve such a big problem. 3.2.3.2 Concessive clause: Concessive clauses imply a contrast between two circumstances. In other words, the main clause is surprising in the line of the dependent one. Clauses of concession are introduced by although, though, even if, even, while, where as. For example : Although he is disable, he still leads a happy and fulfilled life. While I expect he was a good man, he turned out to be a lady- killer. Despite and In spite of are also commonly associated with concessive clause but they function differently from the subordinators above, that is they must be followed by a nominal clause or a gerund. Consider the examples : In spite of / Despite the fact that he is a millionaire, he work as hard as a bee. In spite of / Despite being poor, they still live luxurious lives. Concessive clause may also be introduced by an adjective, adverb or verb followed by as/ that/ though. Much as/ that/ though I admire him, I don't like his behavior. Try as/ that/ though he might, he could not catch up with his mates. Concessive clauses may be nonfinite or verbless : Though an old man, he is very wise and healthy. Alternative conditional - concessive clauses : Alternative conditional - concessive clauses are formed with the correlative sequence whether... or...For example : Whether you agree or not, I will marry him. The above example can be understood in two ways: If you agree, I will marry him. Even if you don't agree, I will marry him. Universal conditional - concessive clause: Gives a choice between two possible condition, the universal one, introduced by one of the wh - words that combines with "ever", indicates a free choice from any number of conditions. Compare : Whether the situation got better or worse, we had to try our best to face it. (two alternatives). However the situation got, we had to try our best to face It. (any number of alternatives). Apart from whatever, whoever, wherever, etc, clauses of this type may be introduced by the constructions : "No matter wh-" and "It doesn't matter wh-". For example: However much money you need, I 'll give you. No matter / It doesn't matter how much money you need, I'll give you. Form of the verb BE, in some circumstances, can be omitted from a universal conditional-concessive clauses. For example : What your opinions (are), we will stand by you. 3.2.4 Clauses of reason(cause) An adverbial clause of reason or cause tells why the action described by the independent clause verb took place. A reason clause is introduced by because, since and as. Because has a tendency to follow the main clause while as and since precede it. For example : As he had never been away from home before, he was a title homesick at first. Since he didn't know anything about the area, he got lost. Farmers rely on chemicals for their crops because they need them to fight the crop natural enemies. 3.2.5 Clause of circumstance Semantically, clauses of circumstance are half - way between conditional clauses of reason. They can introduced by because, as, since and the compound conjunction seeing (that). For example : As we are entering the twenty-first century, we are facing many more exciting technological challenges. Seeing (that) no one paid attention to him, the speaker stopped. Nonfinite and verbless clause can also be used but without a subordinator. Instead, we can put with or without before the circumstantial clause. (With) so many difficulties, they could not carry on with their project. 3.2.6 Clause of purpose: Adverbial clause of purpose state the purpose of the action in the independent clause. Finite adverbial clauses of purpose are usually introduced by so(that), in order that, for fear that, incase can be used for negative purposes. They used a loud-hair so that every one could hear them. We reduced the number of motorbikes for fear that the air should be seriously polluted. Adverbial clause of purpose are more often infinitive clauses than finite clauses. (have no subject). For example : To see the manager, I have to wait for 2 hours. He encouraged us to win our support. More subordinators of purpose are : in order to and so as to : We went to bed early in order to get up early the next morning. The Clean Air act was adopted so as to protect public health. Negative purpose is expressed in infinitive clauses by in order not to and so as not to : They talked softly in order not to be realized. He closed the door so as not to wake the children up. 3.2.7. Clauses of result : An adverbial clause of result expresses the result of the independent clause statement. Clause of result can be introduced by : so, so that, so so + adjective/ adverb + that such a(an) + adjective + noun + that too + adjective / adverb + infinitive adjective / adverb + enough + infinitive For example : Changing the oil is such an easy job that any mechanic can do it. She is too young to go to school. 3.2.8 Clause of contrast: In adverbial clauses of contrast, the information in the first clause of the sentence is in strong contrast to or is the direct opposite of the information in the second clause. In such a sentence can be introduced by the subordinators while, whereas. A comma is placed between the contrast clauses. For example : San Francisco is very cool during the summer, whereas San Juan is extremely hot. While we discussed the problem, he stayed still and said nothing. 3.2.9 Clause of manner and comparison: (1) Clause of manner : Adverbial clauses of manner answer the question: How / and are normally introduced by as, just as, exactly as, in the way that. Do it as I do not as I say. He behaved in the way that his father did. As also introduces a manner clause which involves comparison.( Quirk et al.1979) offer an interesting example : They hunted him as a tiger stalks his prey. Like, as a preposition, is sometime used instead of as in manner clauses. For example : We study like our teachers expect. (2) Clauses of comparison: Clauses of comparison is introduced by as if and as though. For example : He looks as if he is ill. He said as if he were the president. They looked horrified as though they had seen a ghost. Like, again, can replace as if, as though especially in Br.E : She treated me like I were her son. As if and as though may also introduced nonfinite or verbless clauses. For example: They ran as though a ghost after them. The teacher smiled as if to encourage us. 3.2.10 Clauses of proportion and preference. (1) Proportional clauses : Clause of this type expresses an equivalence of tendency or degree between the two circumstances. They are introduced by as and the...the. For example : As you sow, you will reap. The more we live, the more beautiful we realize the life is. (2) Clauses of preference: Clauses of preference may be only introduced by the conjunctions rather than or sooner than. They can be followed by a bare infinitive, an ing- clause or a noun- phrase. For example : Let's go out for walk sooner than staying at home and gossiping. Rather than go forward, we should turn back. 3.3 Adverbial elliptical clauses: Ellipsis form is commonly used in English language because of their compressed and economical form. Ramsay, O.C(1972) remarks that sometimes communicators can convey meanings more efficiently by incorporating clauses rather than leave them in their original clause form. Likewise, Cobuild, C. (1972) writes: “In English, people often omit words rather than repeat them. This is called ellipses”. On the other hand, about the reason for using ellipse, Quirk et al. (1987) explain that ellipsis is used to “avoid repetition” and “to focus on new material”. Just compare: Because misrepresented, the medicine is dangerous Because the medicine was misrepresented, the medicine is dangerous( or because it was misrepresented) The second sentence is longer than the first one and , more importantly, the repetition of ‘ the medicine was” is by no means necessary. Now have a look at another example: I never did go to that place although I probably should have( gone to that place). As can be seen from the example, the use of contrasting tenses help the speaker attract the hearer’s attention on the idea that he should have gone to that place. From the points mentioned above, I come to the conclusion that the adverbial elliptical clause is a type of adverbial clauses which contains ellipsis. Furthermore, adverbial elliptical clauses have main features of the whole family of adverbial clauses, that is, they perform the same semantic roles as the adverbial clause and as far as structure is concerned, they may also fall into three subclasses : finite, nonfinite and verbless clauses. 3.3.1 Finite adverbial elliptical clauses: Finite clauses may be analyzed into S, V, O, C, A. Among these elements, the subject is hardly omitted from the clause structure partly because of the subject- verb concord. Instead, the whole of its predication or part of it can be omitted. In particular, possible elements that can be reduced are: The whole predication. For example: I’ll come to see the manager if you don’t( come to see manager) The subject complement (Cs) only. For example: Everyone in his family is intelligent so he is(intelligent) The adjunct only. For example: I’ll write to the Committee if you write( to the Committee). Like the full finite clause, finite adverbial elliptical clause may appear initially, medially or finally. (1) Final position: normally, the elliptical clause follows the main one, “especially when the lexical verb is ellipted and doesn’t itself comprise the whole of the predication, the adverbial clause must follow”.( Quirk et al.1972, p.539). For example: I won’t phone you unless you will. (2) Initial position: if the ellipsis covers the whole of the predication, the adverbial clause may precede the main one and they are separated by a comma. For example: Because Peter won’t, Mary is dusting the furniture. (3) Medial position: elliptical clauses can also appear medially between two commas in the main clause. For example : I, even if everyone would, will never forgive him. 3.3.2 Nonfinite and verbless adverbial elliptical clauses: Finite adverbial clauses can be reduced to nonfinite and verbless clause with ellipses of the subject( implied from the superordinate) and an appropriate form of BE , and of the subordinator: (1) The subject and appropriate form of BE. For example : If needed, the money is available ( = if it is needed…) When entering the room, she found them smoking ( = when she entered…) (2) Subordinators Some time we can omit subordinators from nonfinite and verbless clauses, especially those of time clauses and reason clauses. However, the ellipsis of subordinators may cause ambiguity because more than one subordinator can be suppli._.