A cognitive study of expressions of metaphor of love in English versus vietnamese

MANITIES SUPERVISOR: Assoc.Prof. Dr. Phan Văn Hịa Da Nang, 2018 i STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Except where bibliography is made in the text, the dissertation contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from another author’s thesis or document. It does not comprise any parts by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma. This dissertation is also assured that it has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. Da Nang, January 2018 Hồ Trịnh Quỳnh Thư ii ABSTRACT The dissertation is carried out in the light of the conceptual metaphor theory fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). It aims at investigating and comparing the expressions of metaphor of romantic love in three linguistic dimensions- space, time and sensory perceptions- of English and Vietnamese modern poetry. The study uses the metaphor identification procedures raised by Charteris Black (2004), Pragglejaz Group (2007) and Steen (1999) to minimize the mistakes and increase the believability of its results of linguistic and conceptual metaphor identification. Besides, technological tools, namely SPSS20 and Microsoft Excel 2013, are also applied to the analysis process of 3300 samples (1650 in each language) collected from 547 love poems. The finding is that love is conceptualized in terms of 21 conceptual metaphors in English and Vietnamese. Especially, one more source domain that is used for love in Vietnamese but not uncovered in our English data is sight. It is one of the differences found between English and Vietnamese conceptualization of love via the language of space, time and sensory perceptions. Interestingly, 7 of 22 these source domains are considered partly or wholly new, including climate, drug, life, music, sight, source of energy, and time. Besides, the expressions of metaphor of love are also determined both conventional and novel. The novelty is manifested via four techniques- extending, elaboration, questioning, and combination, which once again proves the creativity and imaginativeness in poetic language. In addition, the study also finds it that not only the conceptual metaphors but the spatial, temporal and sensory terms used to express love are similar between English and Vietnamese. The similarities may result from the universality of conceptual metaphor and the objectiveness of natural world. However, language is a cultural factor and directly under the effects of culture. Metaphor is the reflection of individual thoughts and experiences. As a result, the ways to express love identified in our study are different between these two languages. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ iii ABBREVIATIONS AND TYPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS....................... viii LIST OF THE TABLES .................................................................................................. ix LIST OF THE FIGURES ................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 1.1. Rationale ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Aims and objectives of the study .............................................................................. 4 1.2.1. Aims of the study ....................................................................................... 4 1.2.2. Objectives of the study .............................................................................. 4 1.3. Research questions ...................................................................................................... 4 1.4. Focus and scope of the study ..................................................................................... 5 1.4.1. Focus of the study ..................................................................................... 5 1.4.2. Scope of the study ..................................................................................... 6 1.5. Justification for the study .......................................................................................... 7 1.5.1. Theoretical significance of the study ........................................................ 7 1.5.2. Practical significance of the study ........................................................... 8 1.6. Organization of the study ........................................................................................... 9 1.7. Summary .................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................. 13 2.1. Theoretical background ........................................................................................... 13 2.1.1. The conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) ................................................ 14 2.1.1.1. The systematicity of conceptual metaphors .................................... 14 2.1.1.2. Partialness of conceptual metaphors. .............................................. 15 iv 2.1.1.3. Metaphorical coherence and understanding ................................... 16 2.1.1.4. Cognitive mechanism of conceptual metaphors ............................. 18 2.1.1.5. Types of conceptual metaphors ...................................................... 19 2.1.1.6. Limitations of the CMT .................................................................. 20 2.1.2. Recent development in conceptual metaphor ......................................... 21 2.1.2.1. Categorization view of metaphor .................................................... 22 2.1.2.2. Blending theory of metaphor .......................................................... 22 2.1.2.3. Neural theory of metaphor .............................................................. 24 2.1.2.4. The view based on the main meaning focus ................................... 25 2.1.3. Expression of metaphor .......................................................................... 26 2.1.4. Metaphor and culture ............................................................................. 26 2.1.5. Metaphor in literature and in poetry ...................................................... 27 2.1.6. Concepts of space, time and sensory perceptions .................................. 31 2.1.6.1. Space ............................................................................................... 31 2.1.6.2. Time ................................................................................................ 32 2.1.6.3. Sensory perception .......................................................................... 32 2.1.7. Love as an emotion ................................................................................. 33 2.1.8. Conceptual metaphors of love ................................................................ 34 2.2. Previous studies of metaphors of love .................................................................... 37 2.3. Summary .................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 44 3.1. Research design ......................................................................................................... 44 3.1.1. Inductive approach ................................................................................. 44 3.1.2. Qualitative and quantitative methods .................................................... 45 3.1.3. Descriptive and contrastive methods ..................................................... 46 v 3.1.3.1. Descriptive method ......................................................................... 46 3.1.3.2. Contrastive method ......................................................................... 47 3.2. Data collection ............................................................................................................ 47 3.2.1. Sources of data ....................................................................................... 48 3.2.2. Identification of linguistic metaphors .................................................... 49 3.2.2.1 Charteris-Black’s method ................................................................ 50 3.2.2.2 MIP and MIPVU .............................................................................. 51 3.2.3. Identification of conceptual metaphors .................................................. 54 3.2.4. Identification of novel metaphors of love ............................................... 55 3.3. Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 56 3.3.1. Statistical analysis tool ........................................................................... 56 3.3.2. Data analysis procedure ........................................................................ 60 3.4. Summary .................................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER 4. EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE IN ENGLISH POETRY ............................................................................................................................ 63 4.1. General description ................................................................................................... 63 4.2. English spatial language used to express love ....................................................... 65 4.2.1. English terms of location used to express love ...................................... 65 4.2.2. English terms of configuration used to express love .............................. 69 4.2.3. English terms of movement used to express love ................................... 72 4.3. English temporal language used to express love .................................................. 76 4.3.1. English chronological terms used to express love ................................. 76 4.3.2. English kairotic terms used to express love ........................................... 79 4.4. English sensory language used to express love ..................................................... 84 4.4.1. English terms of visual perception used to express love ........................ 84 4.4.2. English terms of tactile perception used to express love ....................... 87 vi 4.4.3. English terms of gustatory perception used to express love .................. 91 4.4.4. English terms of olfactory perception used to express love ................... 93 4.4.5. English terms of auditory perception used to express love .................... 94 4.5. Novelty of love metaphors in English poetry ........................................................ 97 4.5.1. Novelty of conceptual metaphors of love in English poetry ................... 97 4.5.2. Novel use of love metaphors in English poetry ...................................... 99 4.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 102 CHAPTER 5. EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE IN VIETNAMESE POETRY .......................................................................................................................... 103 5.1. General description ................................................................................................. 103 5.2. Vietnamese spatial language used to express love ............................................. 105 5.2.1. Vietnamese terms of location used to express love .............................. 105 5.2.2. Vietnamese terms of configuration used to express love...................... 108 5.2.3. Vietnamese terms of movement used to express love ........................... 112 5.3. Vietnamese temporal language used to express love ......................................... 116 5.3.1. Vietnamese chronological terms used to express love ......................... 117 5.3.2. Vietnamese kairotic terms used to express love ................................... 120 5.4. Vietnamese sensory language used to express love ............................................ 123 5.4.1. Vietnamese terms of visual perception used to express love ................ 124 5.4.2. Vietnamese terms of tactile perception used to express love ............... 126 5.4.3. Vietnamese terms of gustatory perception used to express love .......... 129 5.4.4. Vietnamese terms of olfactory perception used to express love ........... 130 5.4.5. Vietnamese terms of auditory perception used to express love ............ 131 5.5. Novelty of love metaphors in Vietnamese poetry ............................................... 132 5.5.1. Novelty of conceptual metaphors of love in Vietnamese poetry .......... 132 5.5.2. Novel use of love metaphors in Vietnamese poetry .............................. 135 vii 5.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 138 CHAPTER 6. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE .................. 140 6.1. Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese conceptual metaphors of love ............................................................................................................ 140 6.2. Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese expressions of metaphor of love ............................................................................................................. 142 6.2.1. Similarities ............................................................................................ 142 6.2.2. Differences ............................................................................................ 147 6.3. Summary .................................................................................................................. 152 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ....................................... 154 7.1. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 154 7.2. Implications .............................................................................................................. 156 7.3. Limitation and suggestions for further research ............................................... 158 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 159 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 161 LIST OF THE POEMS ................................................................................................. 176 DECISION ON THE ADOPTION OF THE DOCTORAL RESEARCH TOPIC ........................................................................................................................................... 212 APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 213 viii ABBREVIATIONS AND TYPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS CD : Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary CMT : conceptual metaphor theory E : English LD : Longman Dictionary of comtemporary English online MD : Macmillan Dictionary MIP : metaphorical identification procedure MIPVU : MIP extended by the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam MWD : Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary V : Vietnamese VD : Vietnamese Dictionary (Từ điển tiếng Việt) - : unfound + : found lower case : linguistic metaphor, e.g. the season of love upper case : conceptual metaphor, e.g. LOVE IS A JOURNEY ix LIST OF THE TABLES Table 3. 1. The missions of qualitative and quantitative methods in the study ........ 45 Table 4. 1. Top five source domains underlying English locative terms used for love . 68 Table 4. 2. Analysis of the images of moon, sun, stars, earth, sky and sea in the metaphor LOVE IS LIFE ................................................................................. 70 Table 4. 3. Top seven source domains underlying English configurative terms used for love .............................................................................................................. 72 Table 4. 4. Top three source domains underlying English moving terms used to express love ...................................................................................................... 74 Table 4. 5. Top five source domains under English spatial language used to express love ................................................................................................................... 76 Table 4. 6. LOVE-AS-TIME mapping ..................................................................... 80 Table 4. 7. Top three source domains underlying English kairotic terms used to express love ...................................................................................................... 83 Table 4. 8. Analysis of the visual terms of beautiful, dark, rounded, light beam and shine metaphorically used to describe love ...................................................... 85 Table 4. 9. Analysis of the terms of temperature metaphorically used for love ....... 89 Table 4. 10. Analysis of the terms of pain perception metaphorically used to express love ................................................................................................................... 90 Table 4. 11. Analysis of musical terms metaphorically used to express love .......... 95 Table 5. 1. Analysis of the images of chùm, khĩm, lá, cành, nụ and hoa in the metaphor LOVE IS A PLANT ....................................................................... 110 Table 5. 2. Analysis of the moving terms - lia and nhặt lên used for love ............. 113 Table 5. 3. Table 5.3. LOVE-AS-TIME OF A YEAR mapping ............................ 119 Table 5. 4 LOVE-AS-FLOWER mapping .............................................................. 122 x Table 5. 5. Quantification of sensory language used for love in Vietnamese ........ 123 Table 5. 6. LOVE-AS-CLIMATE mapping ........................................................... 125 Table 5. 7. Analysis of the tactile terms - mềm and ấm in the metaphor LOVE IS LIFE ........................................................................................................................ 127 Table 5. 8. Analysis of Vietnamese temperature terms metaphorically used to express love ................................................................................................................. 128 Table 6. 1. LOVE - AS - TIME OF A DAY mapping ............................................ 144 Table 6. 2. Source domains used for love in English and Vietnamese ................... 153 xi LIST OF THE FIGURES Figure 1.1. Map of the thesis ..................................................................................... 12 Figure 2. 1. The systematicity in the conceptualization of love in terms of a journey ........................................................................................................................ 15 Figure 2. 2. The coherence of a complex metaphor of love structured by two single metaphors- LOVE IS A JOURNEY and LOVE IS A UNITY ...................... 16 Figure 2. 3. The coherence of the conceptualization of love in terms of time that is understood metaphorically in terms of an entity ............................................ 17 Figure 2. 4. Conceptual mapping .............................................................................. 18 Figure 2. 5. Conceptual blending of “surgeon as butcher” ....................................... 23 Figure 2. 6. Neural theory applied to the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor ........... 25 Figure 3. 1. Sample of detecting mistakes in the data inputs .................................... 57 Figure 3. 2. Sample of the data statistics under linguistic fields .............................. 57 Figure 3. 3. Sample of the data statistics under source domains .............................. 58 Figure 3. 4.Sample of drawing charts on Excel ........................................................ 59 Figure 3. 5. Sample of the comparisons of using metaphorical expressions of love between English and Vietnamese .................................................................. 59 Figure 4. 1. Quantification of English expressions of metaphor of love under spatial, temporal and sensory languages .................................................................... 63 Figure 4. 2. Source domains underlying English expressions of love metaphor ...... 64 Figure 4. 3. Quantification of English spatial terms used to express love under the aspects of location, configuration and movement .......................................... 75 Figure 4. 4. Source domains underlying English spatial language used for love ..... 75 Figure 4. 5. Cycle of a day ........................................................................................ 77 xii Figure 4. 6 The lifetime of living-beings .................................................................. 81 Figure 4. 7. The growth phases of living-beings ....................................................... 82 Figure 4. 8. Quantification of English terms of sensory perceptions used to express love ................................................................................................................. 96 Figure 4. 9. Source domains underlying English terms of sensory perceptions used to express love .................................................................................................... 96 Figure 5. 1. Quantification of Vietnamese expressions of metaphor of love under spatial, temporal and sensory languages ...................................................... 103 Figure 5. 2. Source domains underlying Vietnamese expressions of love metaphor 104 Figure 5. 3 Quantification of Vietnamese spatial terms used to express love under the aspects of location, configuration and movement ........................................ 115 Figure 5. 4 Source domains underlying Vietnamese spatial language used for love116 Figure 5. 5 Source domains underlying Vietnamese temporal terms used to express love ............................................................................................................... 117 Figure 5. 6. Cycle of seasons ................................................................................. 118 Figure 5. 7. The lifetime of a flower ....................................................................... 121 Figure 5. 8. Source domains underlying Vietnamese terms of sensory perceptions used for love ................................................................................................. 124 Figure 6. 1. Source domains used to express love in English and Vietnamese ...... 140 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Rationale Love, which is hardly definable, is one of the significant things in human lives. Without it, people feel as though their lives were incomplete, “I’m incomplete without you” (Bryan, My red heart is blue), for example; or even they are unviable as the words described by Gordon “I cannot live/ Without you” (I look at you and think: I cannot live), similar to what is expressed in Vietnamese “Làm sao sống được mà khơng yêu?” (Xuân Diệu, Bài thơ tuổi nhỏ). Nevertheless, to understand ‘what love is’ is certainly not easy. This question has long been addressed but the answer may be pretty abstract. It may be the reason for which Xuân Diệu – a Vietnamese romantic poet – uttered “Làm sao cắt nghĩa được tình yêu!” (How to explain love!) Several researchers (e.g. Gray, 1993; Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson, and O'Connor, 2001) support that love is one of the basic human emotions. It is a natural phenomenon that can be found in all cultures around the world. However, much of semantics is culturally and experientially based (Casad, 1995; Steenbergen, 2006). It is especially right in description of abstract concepts like love, which has been demonstrated to be one of the concepts richest in imagery by cognitive linguists (e.g. Lakoff & Johnson, 1980a,b; Kovecses, 1986, 1988, 2000; Tessari, 2001). The love expressions are thus diversified, dependent on individual experiences and under cultural influences. In the period of integration nowadays, the need of cross-cultural communication and interpretation becomes necessary. Meanwhile, semantic field plays an important role in understanding a speech. However in Langacker’s view, semantics does not just reflect objective reality but rather represent subjective perceptions of the world (see Casad, 2012). An expression does not only show its inflexibly literal meaning of its components but is also understood in a specific context based on our bodily experiences. The words expressing love are not the exception. Let us look at the following description. 2 (1.1) You’ve slipped under my skin, invaded my blood and seized my heart (Snyder, Poison study) Obviously, the saying cannot be understood based on the literal meaning of the words in it. How can a person “slip under one’s skin”, “invade one’s blood” and “seize one’s heart”? How can these words express love? In this case, the speech can just be interpreted thanks to our experiences and perceptions. These expressions are metaphors whose meanings, according to the conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a), lie not just in language, but in thought and actions. It can also be seen from the example that love is described not only by the word “love” but by many other words as well. Based on “slip under one’s skin”, “invade one’s blood” and “seize one’s heart”, love is interpreted as a war in which the lover has been defeated and controlled by his beloved. Accordingly, it is evident that love becomes easier to approach and flexible to understand thanks to metaphor. Let us consider another example, (1.2) we'll fly away together,/ Fly far away into our own secret place,/ Where you and I can share this fire./ This fire in our hearts that will burn forever... (Laset, Fire of love) There is no word meaning love in the extract, but one can perceive here a sweet love in which the lovers desire to “fly away together to a secret place” where they can share their love together forever. The expression metaphorically draws a love journey with the couple’s travelling (to fly) and their common destination (secrete place). Also in the poem, the image of fire is used to talk about the hope of a lasting duration of love via the expression “burn forever”. In this case, it can be seen that an expected durable love is presented smoothly in terms of a fire. In Vietnamese, love is also depicted through metaphorical images. (1.3) cả vũ trụ say bừng men lửa/ từ em/ ơm trùm anh/ rạo rực/ nỗi yêu rền (the whole universe is intoxicated by the fire from you which covers me, makes me excited about a successive love) (Bùi Minh Quốc, Em đến) 3 (1.4) Cuộc đời chồng thêm tuổi/ Tình yêu càng mặn nồng/ Cây xanh rồi cây cỗi/ Tình yêu vẫn khơng già. (The older we are, the saltier (the more passionate) our love is. Unlike trees that become older over time, love will not be old.) (Diệp Minh Tuyền, Tình yêu... thì thầm) Besides fire, love in (1.3) and (1.4) is also understood relating to an object that can “ơm trùm” (cover) the lover, in terms of a nutrient with its saltiness (“mặn nồng”) and in relation to time by the words “rền” (successive or repeated) and “già” (old). It can briefly be seen from (1.1) to (1.4) that the kind of love mentioned is romantic love; and the expressions used to describe it can be classified into spatial language (including slip under, invade, seize, fly (away/ far/ into), share, this, cover), temporal terms (successive or repeated) and terms of sensory perceptions (fire, burn). The topic of love has so far been considerably explored in philosophy, psychology, anthropology, etc. In linguistics, numerous studies of metaphors of love have been carried out in the light of both traditional and cognitive views. Many of them are conducted along with the studies on emotion in general. Some others examine metaphors of love just in one language in many different periods of time. There are also some cross-cultural investigations that aim to discover the conceptual metaphors of love in a certain language and compare them to the English metaphors found by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) and Kovecses (2000). However, expressions of space, time and sensory perceptions that are used to detect romantic love are still left open, especially those in English and Vietnamese. In those senses, a cognitive study of expressions of metaphor of...ovecses, 2006, p.127). b. Novel metaphor Novel metaphors are metaphors that go beyond our conventional conceptual system and provide us with the new understanding of our experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980a). They are thus imaginative and creative. The metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART is an instance that Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) employed to account for the unconventionality of conceptual metaphor in English. In this metaphor, the aspects of activity in collaboration to build a work of art (i.e. work, creation, pursuing goals, building, and helping) are used for love, which is considered abnormal and unavailable in our conventional conceptual system. As a result, the source 20 domain “a collaborative work of art” is a novel concept applied in love description. In line with the term “conventional”, the term “novel” refers not just to conceptual metaphors but metaphorical expressions. As mentioned above, the conceptualization in metaphor is partial. A novel linguistic metaphor lies beyond the normally used part but not outside the system of cross-domain mappings in a conventional conceptual metaphor (Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a). The statement is illustrated by Lakoff’s (1993) analysis of the song lyric- We’re driving in the fast lane on the freeway of love, which is comprehensible thanks to the conventional LOVE-AS-JOURNEY metaphor. Driving in the fast lane may be exciting but dangerous. When being applied to the loving relationship, the excitement is correspondent to sexual feelings and danger to the breakdown of the relationship. These two factors are regarded as unconventional or novel extensions of the conventional metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY. In short, conventional metaphors count as familiar and easy to interpret while novel metaphors are unfamiliar and unreadily interpretable (Lai, 2009). However, the mechanisms for understanding conventional and novel metaphors are the same. According to Kưvecses (2010a, p.35), conventional and novel (i.e., unconventional) metaphors are at two ends of what is called the scale of conventionality; but unconventional metaphorical expressions under conventional conceptual metaphors are found more easily than unconventional conceptual metaphors. 2.1.1.6. Limitations of the CMT It can be undeniable that the CMT has so far been the powerful and fruitful theory of metaphor. Significantly, cognitive linguists recognize the “thorough pervasiveness of metaphor in ordinary language and thought” (Grady, 2007, p.189). Metaphor is thus inseparable from human conventional way of understanding and experiencing the world. However, there are still some restrictions found in the theory. First, various examples of verbal manifestations in Metaphors we live by (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) as linguistic evidences for several conceptual metaphors 21 are not dependable because they are provided without any sources. In other words, these examples are all decontextualized while an expression of metaphor is just verified accurately within a context. (Wilson & Carston, 2006; Remeo & Soria, 2005) The second is lack of reliable criteria for metaphor identification in the CMT. According to Pragglejaz Group (2007), the criteria help understand and identify metaphors in discourse easily, objectively and accurately but they are not provided specifically by cognitive metaphor scholars. Lack of the criteria for identifying metaphors results in doubts about the precision and true values of empirical investigations, making it difficult to give out any comparison between different metaphorical analyses or any evaluation of theoretical statements about the frequency of metaphor, its organization in discourse, and possible relations between language and thought in metaphor. The third is the question of determining the apt projection between the source and the target domains in a metaphor (Gibbs, 2011). There is a bit of a mystery of how the target of a given metaphor serves to constrain possible source domain, as well as to determine which parts of those source domains become conceptually active in the metaphor (Romeo & Soria, 2005). Although there are some shortcomings, the CMT is still regarded as an effective approach to structuring and comprehending metaphors at this time. Furthermore, the studying of metaphor is being carried out continually. The theory is consequently more and more bettered and improved. The limitations have been basically remedied, particularly the guiding criteria for metaphor identification. 2.1.2. Recent development in conceptual metaphor The CMT has so far been considered groundbreaking in metaphorical use and understanding despite being criticised much. In accompany with the criticisms, several studies have been carried out to reinforce and further develop the CMT. The truth of the CMT has been demonstrated by metaphorical analyses in many kinds of registers such as politics (Lakoff, 2004; Charteris-Black, 2004), culture (Kovecses, 22 2005, 2010b), literature (Lakoff & Turner, 1989; Gibbs, 1994; Kovecses, 2010a; Steen, 2007; Weisberg, 2012), medicine (Semino et al., 2004) among others. Many of these researches are discourse/corpus-based analyses, which partially helps to stamp out the doubt about the reliability of the CMT. Besides, the theory has been modified by some suggestions of identifying metaphors in language such as a 5-step procedure of conceptual metaphor identification by Steen (1999), the approach to metaphor identification by Charteris-Black (2004), the Pragglejaz’s (2007) method for identifying metaphors in discourse (MIP) and its expansion called MIP-VU. All of them help to better the CMT. However, issues of the metaphorical understanding is still controversial; as a result, several theories have been built up with the aim of supporting the interpretation of metaphors. 2.1.2.1. Categorization view of metaphor Bowdle and Gentner (1999) treated metaphor as a species of categorization. The categorization view of metaphor makes use of an attributive category that is exemplified or typical of an entity to attribute to another entity. According to this view, metaphor is a class-inclusion statement (Glucksberg & Keysar, 1993; cited in Kovecses, 2011). When one says “surgeon is a butcher”, for example, the attributive category of a butcher as being “bungling, atrocious” that is typical of “incompetence” is assigned to the surgeon who is understood as being incompetent. 2.1.2.2. Blending theory of metaphor In line with the CMT fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a), blending theory, or conceptual integration theory raised by Fauconnier and Turner (2002), talks of metaphor as a conceptual phenomenon activated by a systematic projection between mental spaces. The conceptual blending uses the 4-space model (instead of the 2-domain model of the CMT) to account for metaphorical concepts. They includes two inputs (equivalent to source and target domains in the CMT), a generic space (where common properties of both inputs are shared), and a blend space (where information from the inputs combines and interacts) (Grady, Oakley, & Coulon, 23 1999, p. 421). The blending includes three basic processes – composition, completion and elaboration. Composition is the projection of properties from each of the inputs into the blend; completion refers to the process of matching projected content with the long-term memorized information in the blend; and elaboration shows cognitive activities of the event that are reproduced in the blend. The utterance “surgeon is a butcher” is, for example, illustrated in Figure 2.5 and analysed as follows. Figure 2. 5. Conceptual blending of “surgeon as butcher” (Grady et al.,1999) The two input spaces (butchery and surgery) are connected by a set of their correspondent properties that are linked to shared properties in the generic space. The blend space inherits the properties from both input spaces; therefore, in the blended space, there is a surgeon in the role of a butcher who cannot do a good job in trying 24 to heal a patient, which leads to such an understanding way of his incompetence. Approving of the integration view, Gibbs (2011) adopts the dynamic system theory to account for metaphorical phenomena. According to this theory, metaphor is employed and understood in a whole system of the interaction of brain, body and world based on the principle of self-organization through simulations. To understand a metaphorical utterance, there may be more than one conceptual metaphor being activated and used. The dynamic system approach focuses on analysing linguistic expressions in a discourse in order to find out the trace of the metaphor that connects to the thinking and language system. This approach is consequently turned into a method of “metaphor-led discourse analysis” including the procedure of transcription, metaphor identification, coding metaphors and using software, finding patterns of metaphor use from coded data (Cameron, et al., 2009). It is noteworthy that the projections in the blending theory may occur in more than one direction, which challenges the CMT. However, Grady et al. (1999) argued that the metaphorical blend inherit the directionality of conventional mappings when employing them. 2.1.2.3. Neural theory of metaphor Neural theory developed by Lakoff (2008) makes sense of metaphorical phenomena via the so-called primary metaphors that evoke in the process of dealing with a metaphor. According to this theory, the metaphorical use and understanding is grounded on embodiment and the extension of conceptual blending called neural binding. In the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, for example, there are the mappings from the source (journey) to the target (love) domains that are described as follows. - Travellers correspond to lovers; - Vehicle corresponds to the relationship; - Destinations is correspondent to life goals; - Impediments to motion are correspondent to difficulties. 25 Figure 2. 6. Neural theory applied to the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor (Lakoff, 2008) In the process of mappings, there is a chain of “evokes” constituting linking circuits between the component metaphors and the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY (called “Self.”). The component metaphors activate based on the neural bindings. All the process of understanding the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY can be illustrated in the following figure, where the arrows (→) are correspondent to linking circuits and the equal signs (=) specify the neural bindings. 2.1.2.4. The view based on the main meaning focus Kovecses (2011) proposed a view of treating metaphors by using main meaning foci that are set up by the central knowledge of the source domain; then, they are mapped onto the target domain. The central meaning foci can be identified as the contrast of two concepts in a metaphor, or they can also be found in dictionaries. In the metaphorical statement “The surgeon is a butcher”, for example, the surgery is understood as a precise work that is not required for butchery. This aspect is an emergent contrast in 26 the comparison of these two concepts, whereby the central meaning focus is defined in the source domain as bungling, sloppy or careless. Then, this central meaning focus is mapped onto the target domain of surgery and the metaphor is comprehended. In sum, the CMT after its birth has received both approvals and criticisms. Many theoretical and practical studies have been carried out in order to demonstrate the truth of the CMT and better it. Besides, there are other theories raised as alternative suggestions of the CMT. Some of them challenge the CMT to the unidirectionality of conceptual metaphors; still, the issue of multi-directionality in conceptual metaphor mappings has been a matter of controversy. Furthermore, the CMT is still the core on which most of the recent theories of metaphors are based to develop. In addition, these theories can complement the CMT and each other in the interpretation of metaphor (Kovecses, 2011). As a result, the CMT is still the main choice for our study, which focuses on expressions of metaphor of romantic love. 2.1.3. Expression of metaphor According to the CMT, metaphor is understood as one mental domain being conceptualized in terms of another. Therefore, metaphor is conceptual in nature; it is manifested in language through linguistic expressions which are called expressions of metaphor (or metaphorical expressions, or linguistic metaphors) in our study. In other words, expressions of metaphor are the linguistic evidence of a conceptual metaphor (or metaphorical concept). For instance, the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY is reflected by a variety of expressions: Look how far we’ve come. It’s been a long, bumpy road. We can’t turn back now... (Lakoff, 1993, p.206) 2.1.4. Metaphor and culture Culture is a term with hundreds of different definitions in the world. Making a generalization of these definitions, Spencer- Oatey (2012) defined culture as basic assumptions and values that influence (but not determine) one’s behaviour and help to understand the behaviour of other members in their community. The manifestations of culture are found in lifestyle, beliefs, the system of procedures, 27 policies and conventions, artefacts and creations (Spencer- Oatey, 2012). Culture is generally divided into Western and Eastern cultures. Western culture (also identified as the Western world) is not just assigned to the continent of Europe but applied to the countries of European immigration such as the Americas and Australasia (Storck, 1994). The free dictionary online also defines Western culture as the cultures of Western Europe and Northern America while Eastern culture (Eastern world) comprises the cultures of the Indian subcontinent, West, North, Central Asia and the Far East (Vietnam included). The division results from the distinctions of religions and lifestyles between these two worlds. In their investigation of the relationship between language and culture, Mahadi and Jafari (2012) found that culture directly affects language. As language and thought are interdependent, culture impacts on thought. Because metaphors are in thought according to the CMT, culture influences metaphor. As a result, metaphor carries cultural meaning, which is similar to the cultural specificity of metaphorical mappings argued by Lakoff (1993). In brief, metaphor can be seen as a product of culture and under cultural influence. It works “based on cultural considerations and cognitive processes” (Kovecses, 2005, p.4). In the other hand, the linguistic metaphors existing in a culture influence the way of structuring concepts (Murphy, 1996). Consequently, metaphor and culture are not separable. Culture creates the diversity as well as the consistence of metaphors in each language and different languages. 2.1.5. Metaphor in literature and in poetry Traditional views treating metaphor at linguistic levels show that metaphors in literature are more creative, unique, impressive, interesting, plentiful, and complex than those in non-literary texts (Semino & Steen, 2008). It is believed that the “real” source of metaphor is in literature (Kovecses, 2010a). As a genre of literature, poetry has all the qualities of literature (Abrams & Harpham, 2012). It is even more metaphorical than prose fiction thanks to the poets’ creative genius (Kovecses, 2002; Lodge, 1977- 28 cited from Semino & Steen, 2008). In such beliefs, the poet Dickey suggests a four- step process of metaphor-making, namely, (i) making picture comparisons in the mind, (ii) discovering the threads of continuity that run through these pictures and which create a “narrative of dramatic action”, (iii) recombining these elements so that they undergo a “fruitful interchange of qualities, a transference of energies, an informing of each other”, and (iv) translating this process into the medium of language (cited from Myers & Wukasch, 2003). Analogously, Ricoeur (1977) also defined the process of making metaphor including three steps, selection, substitution and language formation. On the contrary, the CMT stated that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life; and the knowledge of everyday conceptual system can shed light on most of the cases of poetic metaphors because they are mostly extended from our everyday conventional system of metaphorical thought (Lakoff, 1993; Yu, 1998). It is further shown that poetic metaphorical expressions can be unconventional and novel, but the metaphorical concepts underlying them remain conventional and commonplace to most people in the community (Carriello, 2010; Kovecses, 2010a). The poetic language should consequently be regarded as part of the everyday language; and the analysis of the special acts of language and literature must start and end with that of everyday language (Turner, 1991). It is noteworthy that most of poetic metaphors derive from conventional metaphors, they are thus neither creative nor original nor imaginative. However, poetic linguistic metaphors can be manifested in unconventional ways. Furthermore, most but not all of the poetic metaphors are reflected based on everyday language. As mentioned above, there are still metaphors that are structured outside our everyday conceptual system. They provide new understanding of human experience. Such metaphors are “typically less clear but richer in meaning than either everyday metaphor” (Kovecses, 2010a, p.49). The metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART is the one Lakoff and Johnson (2003) used to illustrate the existence of such imaginative and creative metaphors. 29 Also in terms of metaphor in poetry, Gibbs (1994) claimed that despite using the same underlying conceptual metaphors, the language of great poets is more creative than that employed by most ordinary speakers. These poetic metaphors are made special by reworking ordinary everyday metaphors via four techniques- extending, elaboration, questioning and combining (Gibbs, 1994; Kovecses, 2010a; Lakoff and Turner, 1989); particularly as follows: Extending is defined as adding a new conceptual element or an unconventional aspect to the source domain through new linguistic means to make the conventional metaphor novel. Kovecses (2010a, p.54) illustrated this technique via the lines “In the middle of life’s road/ I found myself in a dark wood” by Dante. There is seemingly no newness as the conventional metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is employed; but the creativity here lies in linguistic means by which the “life’s road” is described as passing through “a dark wood”. Dante extends the LIFE-AS- JOURNEY metaphor by adding this unconventional element to it. Unlike extending a metaphor by introducing new elements in the source domain, elaboration employs already existing elements in a new, unconventional way. This technique is believed to be a principal mode of poetic thought that goes beyond the ordinary (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). For example, in the lines When I dream of meeting/ the enemy, [] white acetylene/ ripples from my body... (Adrienne Rich, The Phenomenology of Anger, cited in Kovecses, 2010a, p.54-55), the conventional source domain a hot fluid used to describe anger is elaborated as a dangerous substance, acetylene. This modification is an unusual way of treating language to make poetic expressions creative and figurative. The next technique- questioning is understood as calling into question of the very appropriateness, or pointing out the inadequacy of our everyday conventional metaphors. Let us consider an example cited from Kovecses (2010a, p.55), Suns can set and return again,/ but when our brief light goes out,/ there’s one perpetual night to be slept through (Catullus 5). The poem points out that there are some questions 30 of the appropriateness of the common conceptual metaphors for life and death, A LIFETIME IS A DAY and DEATH IS NIGHT. It is because once one dies, they cannot live again; or death is a “perpetual night to be slept through” and the dead never come back to life again, which challenges the validity of these metaphors. Therefore, the cognitive mechanism of questioning the validity of accepted metaphors may be based on the partial nature of metaphorical structuring. Finally, combining is using the materials of several conventional metaphors in a single expression or at the same time. It is the most effective technique in making our everyday conceptual system rich and novel (Kovecses, 2010a). Let us look at the clause black night doth take away [the twilight] of the verse from Sonnet 73 by Shakespeare: In me thou seest the twilight of such day/ As after sunset fadeth in the west;/ Which by and by black night doth take away,/ Death’s second self that seals up all in rest. It is expressed skilfully with a combination of the following metaphors: - black: LIFETIME IS A DAY, LIFE IS LIGHT, DEATH IS NIGHT - night: DEATH IS NIGHT, LIFE IS LIGHT - take away: LIFE IS PRECIOUS POSSESSION, EVENTS ARE ACTIONS Blending together, these conventional metaphors reveal the idea that death (correspondent to night) takes away the precious possession of life (corresponding to light) (Lakoff & Turner, 1989, p.71). In summary, on the basis of the conventional metaphors used by lay people, poets readjust their linguistic expressions to fit poetic circumstances and make their language novel, creative and imaginative via the tools of extending, elaboration, questioning and combining. Bartel (1983, p.54-55) thus pointed out four qualities of poetic metaphors: (i) inseparability form their contexts, (ii) their freshness and uniqueness, (iii) their newness produces not only surprise but also tension, and (iv) several different metaphors emerged in a subtle and interesting interaction. The consequence is that whereas the interpretation of conventional metaphors concerns sense retrieval, the comprehension of novel metaphors involves sense creation; and 31 poetic language of metaphor when it is understandable can convey new poetic insights about human experiences (Bowdle & Gentner, 1999; Gibbs, 1994). Since our study is carried out based on the materials of poetry, the poetic reworking mechanisms of ordinary metaphors become essential to help us analyse the data, find out the novelty in English and Vietnamese poetic language. 2.1.6. Concepts of space, time and sensory perceptions In the cognitive view’s equation of meaning with conceptualization, semantic structures are characterized based on the experience of space and time (Bussmann, 2006). The structure of space, time and person is hence fundamental to cognitive process and the understanding of the world (Peer, Salomonc, Goldbergb, Blanke, & Arzy, 2015). 2.1.6.1. Space Space is a boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events occur and have relative position and direction (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Space contains objects and events, but there also exist empty space and unoccupied places. Spatial relationships involve topology, orientation and distance relations between places (Bussmann, 2006; Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012). More specifically, spatial language is concerned with expressions describing location, movement, configuration and the relationships between objects in space (Coventry, 2009; Slack & Van de Zee, 2003). According to Lý Tồn Thắng (2005), spatial properties and relationships of objects can be reflected directly by senses through images or indirectly by logic through concepts. The spatial properties of an object through senses that can be defined by shape, size, space occupied, position, distance, etc. are manifested differently in languages. Thus, spatial language can be formalized in terms of topology and orientation (Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012,). It is used to reflect the existence of objects, their configuration, locations and motions in space. In human communication, utilizing spatial language is often extended to many abstract domains including love (Casasanto & Bottini, 2014; Landau & Jackendoff, 1993). 32 2.1.6.2. Time Temporal information plays a very important role in communication and in many specialized domains of human activity. Fraisse illuminated the importance of time in human life by explaining that our existential conditions vary constantly and modify us in different ways because our existence is structured and shaped by the rhythms of nights and days (cited from Hamdi, 2010). An obvious property of time that we all experience is its passing. Newton stated, “time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to any external” (cited from Evan, 2004). It is composed of points and intervals, and represented by its common units such as year, month, day, hour, minutes, second, etc. (Hajnicz, 1996). There are two opposite concepts of time: temporary and permanent time (McTaggart, 1927; Sinha & Gărdenfors, 2014). Temporary time represents time experienced from the inside on the basis of grammar tense, adverbs, and nominal temporal landmarks. Permanent time is time viewed from the outside and specified by before and after, earlier and later, first and last, etc. Although it is popular and well-known, time is one of the problematic aspects of human experience. Evans (2004) supposed that temporal experience is manifested in two levels: lexical and cognitive based on some notions such as temporal, duration, interval, moment, sequence and event. In lexical level, time is conventionally represented by time, past, present, future, etc. However, people ordinarily think and talk about time not in time’s own terms, but rather in terms of motion through, and location in, three-dimensional space (Evans, 2004). Similarly, Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) stated that time is frequently constructed in terms of space. Therefore, the data for our analysis under temporal terms should be chosen carefully so that they don’t overlap with the ones of space. 2.1.6.3. Sensory perception Sensory imagery is any description involving one or more of the five senses – sight, smell, sound, taste and touch. Each sense has a corresponding sensory organ – eyes, noses, ears, tongue and skin respectively. Sensory perception is an awareness 33 of things, a process of identifying and interpreting sensory information under environment stimuli through the senses (Medical dictionary). According to Nguyen Lai (2009), the field of perception has to be linked to that of thinking in relation to metaphor. Therefore, sensory perception is one link in a chain of cognizing the world, especially emotional world. Furthermore, since the sensory perception is a relatively straightforward process and an accurate reflection of reality (Barth, 2012; Van de Lagemaat, 2015), sensory language is often deliberately used so as to increase descriptive and perceptive effects, particularly those on abstract concepts as love. In brief, space, time, and sensory perception are fundamental cognitive domains, in relation to which the mappings of conceptual metaphors are motivated (Lakoff, 1993; Langacker, 1987, 1999; Tissari, 2001). In this study, the language of space, time and sensory perceptions that are employed to express love are investigated. On the basis of the love metaphors introduced by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a,b), Kưvecses (1986, 1988, 2000), and some other researches, the metaphorical expressions of love are analysed and classified into these three basic domains. The procedure is presented in more detail in the next chapters. 2.1.7. Love as an emotion In line with Merriam-Webster and Oxford dictionaries where love is defined as any of a number of emotions related to a sense of strong affection and personal attachment, McTaggart (1927) treated love as an emotion felt towards persons; it is intense, passionate, and leads to the desire of closeness and union. Love may cause happiness or sadness, pleasure or pain; therefore, love is a complex emotion. According to Tallis (2004), love may exist in many forms; however, there is one manifestation of love that appears to have fascinated humanity since the dawn of civilization. It is the love that a couple share when they fall in love – passionate or romantic love. Romantic love is regarded as a complex sentiment of erotic, cognitive, emotional and behavioural components that are impossible to disentangle, a mix of emotional and physical desires along with unrealistic and idealistic attitude towards 34 a partner (Karandashev, 2015; Sternberg, 1988). In a more general definition, Gottschall and Nordlund (2006) stated that romantic love is a complex emotion manifested in a romantic context between two persons with partly sexual attraction. It is a representative feeling kept for only one person and expected to last forever. 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Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p. 194 Xuân Diệu (2007). Cái dằm. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.167. Xuân Diệu (2007). Dại khờ. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.79. Xuân Diệu (2007). Dâng. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.133. Xuân Diệu (2007). Đời anh em đã đi qua. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Đời-anh-em-đã-đi-qua/poem-nMdKNEr1 KVmLrciSCSAIjg Xuân Diệu (2007). Đứa con của tình yêu. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p. 226. Xuân Diệu (2007). Em đọc lại thơ. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Em-đọc-lại-thơ/poem- mjW8_cV3V2exjOOdvHPdZw Xuân Diệu (2007). Giục giã. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.82. 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Ngút ngàn. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.167. Xuân Diệu (2007). Nguyên đán. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.16. Xuân Diệu (2007). Nước đổ lá khoai. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.104. Xuân Diệu (2007). Phải nĩi. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.23. Xuân Diệu (2007). Quả trứng và lịng đỏ. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.166. Xuân Diệu (2007). Rạo rực. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.132. (278) Xuân Diệu (2007). Sao em lại như thế. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.178. Xuân Diệu (2007). Thác. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p. 235 Xuân Diệu (2007). Tiễn biệt. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.200. Xuân Diệu (2007). Tình cờ. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.82. Xuân Diệu (2007). Tình yêu san sẻ. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.158. Xuân Diệu (2007). Trăng sáng. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p. 237. Xuân Diệu (2007). Tứ tuyệt tương tư. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Tứ-tuyệt-tương-tư/poem-tDYDAjD6lcVi mlSdgLkYtw Xuân Diệu (2007). Vì sao. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: 210 Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.14. Xuân Diệu (2007). Vội gì vội. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Vội-gì-vội/poem-1mWeET7gheMnCvlH owk0Fg Xuân Diệu (2007). Xuân khơng mùa. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Xuân-khơng-mùa/poem-40vkrwdfX6n6t H1ECPFUTw Xuân Diệu (2007). Yêu mến. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.118. Xuân Diệu (2007). Yêu. Hà Minh Đức (tuyển chọn và giới thiệu). Xuân Diệu: Ơng hồng của thơ tình yêu. NXB Giáo dục, p.20. Xuân Diệu. Anh đã giết em. Retrieved July 10th, 2014 from ân-Diệu/Anh-đã-giết-em/poem- JrS_M53Pp76 DQhbQ772APQ Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Bàn tay em. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.50. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Bao giờ ngâu nở hoa. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.58. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Cĩ một thời như thế. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.121. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Hát ru. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.53. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Mùa hoa doi. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.33. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Nĩi cùng anh. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.81. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Sĩng. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.36. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Thơ tình cuối mùa thu. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.76. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Thơ tình tơi viết. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.99. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Thuyền và biển. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.61. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Tình ca trong lịng vịnh. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. NXB Đồng Nai, p.181. Xuân Quỳnh (1997). Tự hát. Kiều Văn, Nam Tuấn (tuyển chọn). Thơ Xuân Quỳnh. 211 NXB Đồng Nai, p.84. Xuân Quỳnh. Hoa ti gơn. Retrieved August 5th, 2014 from ân-Quỳnh/Hoa-ti-gơn/poem-n3J3daioQvC2MbaH -hi1jQ Xuân Quỳnh. Khơng đề (I). Retrieved August 5th, 2014 from ân-Quỳnh/Khơng-đề-I/poem-ndh1BhbFvOcAgD KkB1gbZw Xuân Quỳnh. Khơng đề (IV). Retrieved August 5th, 2014 from ân-Quỳnh/Khơng-đề-IV/poem-z6RKM3VPZq0XJ 24qPwzk-w Xuân Quỳnh. Ru. Retrieved August 5th, 2014 from ân- Quỳnh/Ru/poem-nEpBmCItcbQ1JWx13AkWGw Ý Nhi (1994). Vườn. Kiều Văn (tuyển chọn). Thơ tình nữ thi sĩ Việt Nam. NXB Đồng Nai, p. 73. 212 DECISION ON THE ADOPTION OF THE DOCTORAL RESEARCH TOPIC 213 APPENDIX SPATIAL, SENSORY, AND TEMPORAL TERMS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS OF LOVE A.1. English locative terms in metaphorical expressions of love Locative terms F* Locative terms F Locative terms F across 1 after 2 at 5 along 1 contain 2 dwell/ lie in 5 among 1 deep seated 2 close/ near 6 back 1 first 2 here/ there 6 beyond 1 out of 2 from 7 corner 1 side/ side by side 2 at/in Eden’s door/ the Garden of Eden/ heaven/ paradise/ Happy Isles/ celestial 8 course 1 together 2 destination 1 towards 3 drown 1 miles 3 fit 1 ’twixt/ amid/ between 3 on 9 fold 1 around 3 (any/every/no)where 11 home 1 exist 3 distant/ far 11 marriageward 1 beneath/under 4 within 11 place 1 to/ into/ up to 4 inside/outside 14 share one space 1 this 4 with 14 via the heart 1 above/ upon 5 in 71 * F (frequency) Total 240 A2. English configurative terms in metaphorical expressions of love Configurative terms F* Configurative terms F Configurative terms F Configurative terms F awash 1 image 1 unwound 1 galaxy/ sky 4 batch 1 key 1 vein of gold 1 bond/ thread/ tie 4 balloon 1 leaf 1 vessel 1 bowl 4 block 1 limitless 1 vine 1 moon 4 blood 1 line 1 washout 1 all/ whole 5 boundary 1 lock-key 1 wick-oil 1 only you and me/ pair/ two 5 building 1 loneliness 1 wine 1 castaway 1 mantle 1 wreckage 1 brimful/ full 5 chain 1 miles 1 steep 1 long 5 chalice-wine 1 narrow pound 1 kaleidoscope 1 a bit/ little/small 6 city 1 nest 1 coin 2 apart 6 cloud-wind 1 three 1 cup/ grail 2 empty/ emptiness 6 coach 1 prism 1 dinosaur 2 wall 6 companion 1 reward 1 earth - sky 2 world 6 214 complementary 1 rivers 1 fill 1 alone/ lonely 7 concentric 1 roadblock 1 flood 2 breadth/ big/ grand/ great/ monster/ vast 7 crooked 1 rock 1 Earth/ land 2 desert 1 rod 1 half 2 Eden/ Garden of Eden/ heaven/ paradise 7 division 1 root 1 heart 2 dory-harbor 1 rough 1 obstacle 2 double-knot 1 rounded 1 prison 2 sea/ ocean 7 exist 1 sand 1 remnant/ trace 2 (in)complete/ completely 7 exit 1 seaming 1 plant/ tree 2 face 1 seed 1 reflection 2 part 8 fit 1 separate 1 skein 2 star 10 fleas 1 shoal 1 thin/thick 2 one/ oneness 11 flower-breeze 1 thing 1 wing 2 deep/depth/deeply 13 fool 1 thoroughfare 1 zigzag 2 gift 13 frail 1 tomb 1 house/ shelter 3 highway/ path/ road/ way 18 fruit 1 tower 1 door/ gate 3 garden 1 twelve 1 high/ height 3 much/more 19 hair 1 snare 1 marriage 3 bud/ blossom/ flower/ rose/ stalk 21 handcuffs 1 star-sky 1 sun 3 hill 1 unity 1 together 3 Total 348 honey-drop 1 universe 1 * F (frequency) A3. English terms of movement in metaphorical expressions of love Configurative terms F* Configurative terms F Configurative terms F Configurative terms F add 1 skip a beat 1 escape/ redeem 4 transform/ turn 6 away 1 slip 1 draw into/ enter/ exist 4 build/ built 7 back 1 snatch 1 break/ breaking/ broken 7 bow down 1 spurt 1 go (riding/ sailing) 4 cast 1 stand 1 keep/ remain 4 flow/ overflow/ spill 7 blow 1 start 1 inhale/ drink 4 chase 1 sting 1 lift 4 lay/ put 7 come alive 1 stir 1 open 4 leave/ pledge/ relinquish/ remove 7 couple 1 subdued 1 inert/ trudge/ linger 4 defend 1 turbulence 1 drift 1 unbloom 1 jump/ leap/ pound 4 grow/ outgrow/ overgrown 8 embrace 1 unreachable 1 entangle 1 waft 1 part 4 accept/ get/ receive/ take/ taken 16 face 1 whittle 1 push away/ sweep/ wash away 4 follow the trail 1 alive 2 give and take 1 beat 2 sail/ swim 4 gather/ pick/ pluck/ treasure 10 glide 1 climb/ scale 2 wait 4 gravity 1 coin/ convert 2 wrap 4 into/ out of 10 hook on 1 compound 2 breeze /rain storm/ tempest 5 walk/ wander 10 imprisoned 1 crush 2 11 215 inch 1 drip/ instil 2 destroy/ dissolve/ mar 5 clutch/ hold/ held/ keep increase 1 for 2 fall/ down 13 intertwined 1 free 2 drive/ ride 5 flutter/ fly/ soar/ alight/ take flight to 13 looped 1 pay for/ swap 2 dip/ drown/ flood/ plunge 5 loose 1 run/ scurry 2 nestle 1 stay 2 halt/ stop 5 bind/ bound/ join/ pin/ tie/ unjoined/ unleash 14 on our way to 1 tear/ torn 2 journey/ travel/ trip 5 onward 1 through 2 paint 1 towards 2 melt/ melting/ merge/ mingling 5 lose/ lost 15 pass 1 alter/ change 3 bear/ borne/ bring/ carry/ create/ wear/ yield/ 23 pick up clues 1 breathe 3 send/ sent 5 plant 1 retreat/ return 3 share 5 plumb 1 roam/ sally/ prowl 3 fill/ filled 6 bestow/ give/ dedicate/giving/ offer/provide 39 resign 1 separate/ separated 3 lurch/ sway/ shake/ totter/ tremble 6 retrieve 1 spin/ twirl/ whirl 3 ripped 1 give (room/way) 3 capture /catch/ caught 6 arrive/ come/ go/ gone/ move 54 sit upon 1 cross/ pass 4 * F (frequency) Total 501 A4. English visual terms in metaphorical expressions of love Visual terms F* Visual terms F Visual terms F bloom 1 glimmer/ shimmer 2 dark/ dim/gray/ darkness 9 cry 1 hide/ hidden 2 delicate 1 lovely/ loveliness 2 illuminate/ shine/ shining 10 disappear 1 moonlight/ moonly 2 dreamy look 1 aura/ bright/ brightness 11 green and lush 1 rich 2 smile 1 discover/ explore 3 burn/ douse/ ignite/ reignite 11 ignore 1 enchanting/ grace 3 in view 1 light beam/ ray 3 look/ look for/ search/ seek/ unsought 14 lilies-moonbeam 1 light up/ lit 3 lost 1 vivid/ alive 3 beautiful/ beauty 18 newfound 1 fade/ pale/ paled 4 color/ aqua/ amethyst/ black/ blue/ crimson/ flush/ red/ rose/ rose-red/ scarlet/ green/ orange/ pink/ violet/ yellow/hue 22 incandescent/ radiance/ radiant 2 rainbow 4 mark/ stain 5 fireworks 1 show/ reveal 5 red light 1 aglow/ decked/ glory/ glow/ luminous/splendor 6 reflected 1 candle/ fire/ flame/spark 24 scarlet brand 1 light 23 shadow 1 wilted/ wither 6 find/ grope/ rummage/ see 37 turn the light to gold 1 7 216 sunly/ sunny/ sunshine/ sunlight Total 273 fresh/ pure 2 blind/ glance/ eye 8 * F (frequency) A5. English tactile terms in metaphorical expressions of love Tactile terms Frequency Tactile terms Frequency burning 1 acold/ bitter/ cold/ coldness/ coolness/ numb 14 heal/ soothe 3 heat/ hot/ hotness 4 dash/ feel/ touch 16 harsh/ sharp/ soft/ smooth/ 5 ache/ agony/ anguish/ hurt/ pain/ sting/ suffering/ wound 30 burden/ light 9 cozy/ warm/ warmth 13 Total 95 A6. English gustatory terms in metaphorical expressions of love Terms of gustation Frequency Terms of gustation Frequency taste/ tasted 5 sweet/ sweets/ sweetly 29 bitter 2 bittersweet 1 salt 1 Total 38 A7. English auditory terms in metaphorical expressions of love Terms of audition Frequency Terms of audition Frequency dumb 1 groaning/ moan 2 ears 1 choir/ minstrel 2 knock 1 melody/ symphony/ tune 4 thunder 1 music/ musical 4 purr 1 call/ laugh/ speak/ summon/ voice 6 rattle 1 silence-haunted 1 lilt/ lyric/ sing/ song 17 sizzle 1 Total 43 A8. English chronological terms in metaphorical expressions of love Chronological terms Frequency Chronological terms Frequency summer 1 April/ March-day/ May 4 season 2 day/night 6 sunrise/ sunset 3 spring/ springtime 12 Total 28 217 A9. English kairotic terms in metaphorical expressions of love Kairotic terms Frequency Kairotic terms Frequency anew 1 days ahead/ future/ tomorrow 3 brief 1 bloom/ blossom/ flowering 4 dawn 1 new/ young 4 days 1 last 5 early 1 deathless/ endless/ eternal/ undying/ unending 7 happen 1 minute 1 begin/ start/ start out 8 turn 1 old/ old days/ old- fashioned/ out of fashion 12 past/ yesterday 3 beget/ born 4 dead/ die/ end/ fade 20 Total 78 A10. Vietnamese locative terms in metaphorical expressions of love Locative terms F* Locative terms F Locative terms F cuối đất cùng trời 1 ngả/ đơi ngả 2 này/ đây 6 dành 1 nguồn (gốc) 2 con đường/ đàng/ lối 7 quán trọ 1 trú tạm 2 bến/ bờ/ đích đến/ điểm dừng/ nơi 8 sa lầy 1 Đào Nguyên/ mảnh trời thần tiên/ thiên đường 3 nhân 1 chìm/ đắm (chìm/đuối)/ ngập đắm 12 dưới 1 gần/ rút gần 3 miền đất lạ 1 vào (bên đường/ lịng/ nơi) 3 bên/ bên cạnh/ bên nhau/ cạnh nhau/ sát 16 sau 1 sâu 1 giữa/ xuyên giữa 4 đầu (tiên)/ thứ nhất 22 tay trong tay 1 phương/ từ 4 biệt/ cách/ xa (cách/ nhau/ tắp/ xơi) 25 xung quanh 1 trên (biến/cành/hết) 4 chơn vào 2 chỗ/ cõi (thiên đường) 5 trong (dạ/ lịng/ thiên đường) 28 đáy (ba lơ/ lịng) 2 ở (bên/ trong) 5 * F (frequency) đường (ấy/ này/ khác) 5 Total 182 A11. Vietnamese configurative terms in metaphorical expressions of love Configurative terms F* Configurative terms F Configurative terms F ao sen 1 bĩng-gương/ bĩng-hình 2 bao la/ cao/ lớn/ rộng/ mênh mơng 6 biển - bờ cát 1 vịnh 2 quả trứng - lịng đỏ 1 hạn/ giới hạn 2 mảnh/ tấm 7 bướm - hoa 1 bền chặt/ khăng khít 2 nát (tan)/ rạn/ vụn (vỡ) 7 cái dằm 1 trời - trăng 2 đèo/ đồi/ núi/rừng/ sa mạc/ thác ghềnh 8 chiếc xe 1 vàng đá/ vàng ngọc 2 218 chín 1 vạt 2 đồng/ mảnh vườn/ cánh đồng hoa/ mặt đất/ vùng 8 chứa chan 1 liền 2 vỏ - ruột 1 mười/ muơn triệu 2 bơ vơ/ chơi vơi/ lạc lồi/ mong manh 9 con chỉ -khung cửi 1 sĩng - bờ (cát) 2 đàn-dây 1 trận trận bát quái 2 bến-đị (thuyền)/ thuyền (cánh buồm)-biển 10 dấu chân 1 cao/ cheo leo/ dài 3 điểm tựa 1 hai (mảnh/ mình/ nửa) 3 (một) nửa 12 gai nhọn 1 vầng trăng/ trăng rằm 3 bến (nước)/ bờ (cỏ)/ con đị/ buồm/ thuyền 15 Hồng Hậu - Vua 1 mái/ ngơi nhà/ nấm mồ 3 kho vàng 1 dang dở/ dở dang 4 dào dạt/ đầy/ tràn đầy/ chống đầy/ vơi/ khơng 15 Uyên-Ương 1 rối (bời/ rắm) 4 mây- trăng 1 vơ (biên/ bờ/ bớ bến)/ khơn cùng 4 một/ số một/ duy nhất 16 ngơi sao 1 chút/ đa/ nhiều/ những 19 rượu 1 lơ cốt 4 biển/ nguồn (suối)/ sĩng/ (dịng) sơng/ suối 21 rượu-chén 1 tan (nát/ tành) 4 sơng-lục bình 1 (bầu/ mặt) trời 5 (chặng/con/ đoạn/ nẻo/ quãng) đường/ ngã rẽ/ ngõ/ lối (ra/ về)/ dặm 22 ruột thắt 1 giọt (mưa/ thủy ngân) 5 bản đồ 2 trọn/ vẹn (nguyên/ trịn) 5 cành/ chùm/ khĩm/ lá/ mầm/ nụ/ (đĩa) hoa/ nhụy/ hạt/ quả/ trái 26 bão dơng/ cơn mưa lũ 2 cửa (đĩng/ khép)/ kín/ mở/ trống trải 5 cành - (hai đĩa) hoa 2 cạn (khơ) 2 thiếu/ thừa 5 mối/ sợi (dây/ tơ duyên/ hồng/tơ mành/ xe) 37 cầu 2 bĩng lẻ/ lẻ loi 6 vịng 2 cái 6 Total 374 cơi trầu/ giầu- cau 2 đơi / song 7 * F (frequency) A12. Vietnamese terms of movement in metaphorical expressions of love Moving terms F Moving terms F Moving terms F Moving terms F cắn 1 đơm/ đong 2 lay/ rúng/ xao (động) 4 chắp (cánh/ lại/ nối)/ hàn 9 cản trở 1 xây (đắp) 2 cất 1 vun trồng 2 bay/ phảng phất/ phơi phới 4 buơng/ thả/ gieo 11 cắt 1 đánh lưới 2 liệm/ chơn/ vùi 11 câu 1 đập / vỗ 2 đổ vào/ rĩt/ trút 5 dừng (chân/ lại)/ đỗ/ đứng/ neo/ ở lại/ nằm (yên)/ chờ 12 chất 1 thổi (bùng/ giĩ) 2 ăn/ uống 5 chạy trốn 1 lựa chọn 2 (đánh) đổi 5 dẫn đường 1 ngã vào 2 bật/nảy/ trổ (mầm)/ mọc 5 bão (táp/tố)/ cuồng phong/ phong ba/ cơn (lốc/ mưa/ giĩ) 13 đảo lộn 1 ra đi/ thốt ra 2 đào sâu 1 ra khơi/ phiêu 2 chứa chan/ dạt dào/ lai láng/ khơn hàn 5 đắp lũy 1 sang (đị/ sơng) 2 lăn lĩc 1 cưỡng/ cướp 2 14 219 tiễn 1 lấy (cắp/ lại) 2 run run 5 đem/ mang/ dâng/ tặng kiềm chế 1 cuộc hành trình/ cuộc trường chinh 2 đuổi/ theo (đuổi) 6 (tạt/ trở) về 15 trả 1 lui/ quay (cuơng/ ngược/ trở lại/ về) 6 cầm/ (nắm/ gìn) giữ 15 đứng tổ kiến 1 trận giĩ 2 ngăn bờ 1 lội/ trèo 3 chia/ rẽ (đơi/ sẻ) 6 lưu lạc/ đánh/vuột (mất/ khỏi)/ bỏ (rơi) 17 ngược dịng 1 cuộn (trào) 3 lồng/ rời (nhau) 6 chìa tay 1 cuốn (hút) 3 chao/ chắc trơ trơ/ thay đổi/ thành 7 chiếm 1 dứt (đoạn) 3 (ràng) buộc/ dệt/ đan/ kết/ trĩi/ thắt/ xe/ khĩa chặt 21 rĩn rén 1 gõ (cửa) 3 chen/ hất/ xơ (ngã/ vỡ)/ len/ xơng vào 7 rộn rịp 1 trơi 3 nhún nhẩy 1 gỡ/ tách (ra/ rời) 3 đến (đây) 25 chở 1 vây (bủa/ quanh) 3 giăng/ vương/ vấn vương/ vướng tơ 7 gãy/tan/ rạn/ nát/ vỡ (vụn)/ xé/ vị xé 28 cưa 1 bày đặt/ đặt/ để (lại/ qua bên) 4 đồng hành 1 lạc (đường/ lối/ phương/ vào) 7 loạn nhịp 1 dựng (lại/ rào) 4 ban/ cho/ gửi/ trao/ tặng 36 sánh đơi 1 chứa/ đựng/ ướt 4 bước (đi/ ra)/ vào 8 trăn trở 1 hịa 4 di chuyển/ đi (đến/ hết/ qua/ tiếp/ tới)/ vụt/ vượt/ băng (qua)/ lang thang/ rong ruổi 54 tựa 1 nhận 4 ơm/ siết chặt 8 ủ 1 nghiêng (ngả/ ngửa)/ vật vờ 4 gắn bĩ/ quyện chặt/ quấn quít 8 hồi sinh/sống lại 2 căng/ phơi 2 ngã vào/ rơi/ rụng 4 gom/ hái/ lượm/ lia/ (thu) nhặt 8 bớt/ cộng vào 2 gặt 4 Total 521 A13. Vietnamese visual terms in metaphorical expressions of love Visual terms F* Visual terms F Visual terms F cuộc kiếm tìm 1 bạc (như vơi/ phếch) 2 mưa/ nắng (tỏa) 13 mù lịa 1 tan biến/ tắt (lịm)/ xĩa/ tối (đen)/ u ám 14 đượm 1 cơn mưa 2 giản dị 1 đỏ 2 huy hồng/ lấp lánh/ lộng lẫy/ nồng/ rực (cháy/ sáng/ rỡ)/ rạng (ngời/ rỡ)/ xán lạn/ 15 mất tích 1 giấu 2 mặt trời 1 giống 2 tro tàn 1 soi (gương/sáng) 2 phủ băng 1 mỏi mịn 2 (đốm/ ngọn) lửa/ nến 17 ngút ngàn 1 u ẩn/ vắng 2 bừng/ cháy (bỏng)/ ngời/ (sáng) tỏ/ le lĩi/ 22 nhuộm 1 vẻ đẹp 2 sương khĩi 1 in dấu/ vết 2 dị/ tìm/ kiếm/ thấy/ lơ/ nhìn/ ngắm 28 quạnh hiu 1 lạc mất 2 220 vỡ lở 1 bắt gặp/ gặp nhau 3 sắc/ màu/ xanh/ đỏ/ tím/ nước mây/ tơ màu/ thắm/ nhạt/ phai/ tươi 28 xem chừng 1 héo (tàn)/ tiêu điều 4 khuất 1 nhen/ thắp (sáng) 4 thầm kín 1 (khơng) ánh sáng 5 thất lạc 1 đốt (cháy/ lửa/nến) 5 Total 207 cái nhìn 2 đẹp/ xinh 8 * F (frequently) A14. Vietnamese tactile terms in metaphorical expressions of love Tactile terms Frequency Tactile terms Frequency chạm 1 ấm (áp)/ cháy bỏng/ đượm nồng/ đầm ấm/ hừng hực/ nồng (ấm/ thắm)/ nĩng rực/ râm ran nĩng/ 22 làm lành 1 cồn cào/ xĩt xa 2 dịu dàng/ êm (ái)/ mềm/ mượt 6 băng/ (buốt/ giá) lạnh/ heo may/ lạnh căm/ lạnh lùng/ rét buốt/ tê buốt/ se se lạnh /mát/ nhiệt độ âm 23 nặng/ nhẹ 7 vết (cứa/ xước)/ (vết / tổn/ tử) thương 8 bị thương/ đau (đớn/ khổ/ lịng/ nhĩi/ quặn/ thương)/ nhức buốt/ (niềm/ nỗi) đau 39 hơi ấm/ máu nĩng/ lửa ấm/ đun nĩng /sưởi ấm/ nguội/ than lạnh 11 Total 120 A15. Vietnamese gustatory terms in metaphorical expressions of love Gustatory terms Frequency Gustatory terms Frequency đậm 1 mặn (mịi/ nồng) 3 mật 1 vị 3 chua/ chua chát 2 đắng (cay)/ vị đắng 5 lạt lẽo/ nhạt 2 ngọt (lịm/ ngào) 12 ngon 2 Total 32 A16. Vietnamese olfactory terms in metaphorical expressions of love Olfactory terms Frequency Olfactory terms Frequency phai 1 mùi (hương) 4 ngát (hương) 2 thơm (ngát/ tho) 5 ngào ngạt 3 hương 14 nồng nàn 3 Total 32 A17. Vietnamese auditory terms in metaphorical expressions of love Auditory terms F* Auditory terms F Auditory terms F 221 giịn 1 thầm lặng 1 ru 2 hứa 1 từ chối 1 tiếng (nấc/ thì thầm) 4 lặng câm 1 van xin 1 bài hát/ ngũ âm/ nhịp điệu/ hát/ hĩt 5 mách bảo 1 cung (bậc) 2 nghe 1 dịu dàng 2 lên tiếng/ mời/ gọi 8 nhắc nhở 1 (cơn) dơng 2 rộn (rã/ ràng)/ xơn xao 15 * F (frequency) Total 49 A18. Vietnamese chronological terms in metaphorical expressions of love Chronological terms Frequency Chronological terms Frequency mùa trăng 1 bình minh/ (chiều) hồng hơn 5 mùa hạ 2 đêm/ngày 3 mùa đơng 5 mùa 3 (mùa/ ngày) xuân 12 mùa thu 3 Total 34 A19. Vietnamese kairotic terms in metaphorical expressions of love Kairotic terms F* Kairotic terms F Kairotic terms F buổi ban đầu 1 mùa hái quả/ ngày thương yêu 2 cũ/ chín/ già/ luống tuổi 12 cuối cùng 1 bắt đầu/ chớm/nở 13 muộn màng 1 bất diệt/ bền lâu/ mãi mãi/ trăm năm/ vĩnh viễn/ rền 6 dĩ vãng/ (ngày/ thời) xưa/ quá khứ 21 ngắn ngủi 1 nụ/ thuở măng tơ 2 chết/ tàn (tạ) 22 tuổi 2 mới (mẻ)/ non/ trẻ (trung) 12 Total 99 khoảnh khắc/ thống 2 * F (frequency)